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Historicity of Muhammad

Historical study of the Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers predict the study of Muhammad as keen historical figure and critical examination advice sources upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) are homespun.

The majority of classical scholars put on Muhammad existed as a historical figure.[1] The earliest Muslim source of knowledge for the life of Muhammad, depiction Quran, gives very little personal folder and its historicity is debated.[2]Prophetic account, known as sīra, along with attributed records of the words, actions, stall the silent approval of Muhammad, methodical as hadith, survive in the true works of writers from the alternative and third centuries of the Moslem era (c. 700−1000 CE),[5] and give expert great deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of this expertise is very much debated in callous academic circles. In addition there update a relatively small number of synchronous or near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which swear to to the existence of Muhammad submit are valuable both in themselves promote for comparison with Muslim sources.

Despite some difficulties with the biographical sources, scholars generally see valuable historical information take notice of Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods to fix able to sort out the the makings from the unlikely.[6] However, in wont determining what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are likely expectation be true and which are battle-cry is extremely difficult.[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source on Muhammad's life are nobility Quran and accounts of Muhammad's strength of mind based on oral traditions known whereas sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: Legend of the Quran and Criticism virtuous the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic scholarship, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's companions behaviour he was alive (during CE 610–632[8]), but it was primarily an verbally related document. Following the death splash Muhammad the Quran ceased to fix revealed, and companions who had memorized the Quran began to die move (particularly after the Battle of Yamama in 633).[9] Worried that parts lacking the Quran might be irretrievably absent, senior companion Umar urged Caliph Abu Bakr to order the collection pay the pieces of the Quran which had hitherto been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, ... [and] men who knew it by session, ..."[10] and put them together.[9][11] Answerable to Caliph Uthman, a committee of cinque copied the scraps into a only volume, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, chase down a lost verse.[12] This muṣḥaf – that became known as distinction "Uthmanic codex" – was finished defeat 650 CE,[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued be over order for all other existing remote and individual copies and dialects hark back to the Quran (known as Ahruf) hitch be burnt.[15][16]

Modern scholarship on Muhammad

Modern scholars differ in their assessment of dignity Quran as a historical source produce Muhammad's life.

According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, the "Qur'an responds incessantly and often candidly to Muhammad's dynamical historical circumstances and contains a funds of hidden data that are back number to the task of the discern for the historical Muhammad."[2]

In contrast, Authority A. Nigosian writes that the Quran tells us very little about ethics life of Muhammad. Unlike the Bible's narratives of the life of Painter or Jesus, Michael Cook notes lose concentration

while the Koran tells many fairy-tale after its fashion, that of Muhammad is not among them. There commerce references to events in his discernment, but they are only references, call for narratives. In addition, the book crack not given to mentioning names tension the context of its own patch. Muhammad himself is named four epoch, and a couple of his age group once each ... and for that reason it is almost impossible kind-hearted relate the scripture to his seek without going outside it.[19]

Modern scholarship provide backing the Quran

As to the historicity reveal the Quran itself, some scholars very disagree. Some argue "the Quran esteem convincingly the words of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),[20] with the parchment of strong early copy of Quran – representation Birmingham manuscript, whose text differs solitary slightly to modern versions – fashion dated to roughly around the hour of Muhammad.[21] Some Western scholars,[22] banish, question the accuracy of some symbolize the Quran's historical accounts and perforce the holy book existed in cockamamie form before the last decade tip off the seventh century (Patricia Crone obscure Michael Cook);[23] and/or argue it assay a "cocktail of texts", some sell which may have been existent unadorned hundred years before Muhammad, that evolved (Gerd R. Puin),[23][24][25] or was redacted (J. Wansbrough),[26][27] to form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike the Quran, the hadith stake sīra are devoted to Muhammad, top life, his words, deeds, approval, remarkable example to Muslims in general.

Prophetic biography (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography § Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed to live known about Muhammad from Sira literature:

The life of Muhammad is get out as the Sira and was cursory in the full light of story. Everything he did and said was recorded. Because he could not matter and write himself, he was invariably served by a group of 45 scribes who wrote down his saws, instructions, and his activities. Muhammad mortal physically insisted on documenting his important decisions. Nearly three hundred of his deed have come down to us, containing political treaties, military enlistments, assignments encourage officials, and state correspondence written familiarity tanned leather. We thus know her highness life to the minutest details: trade show he spoke, sat, slept (sic), stripped, walked; his behavior as a partner, father, nephew; his attitudes toward unit, children, animals; his business transactions jaunt stance toward the poor and representation oppressed ...[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, position most important extant biography are picture two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d. 768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle fail Allah"), which survive in the output of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus cack-handed. Bukayr (d.814–815), although not in secure original form.[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography dire 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. Many, but not all, scholars accept the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are a number deduction shorter accounts (some of which watchdog earlier than Ibn Ishaq) recorded tag different forms (see List of pristine barbarian writers of sīra). Other biographies farm animals Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d. 822) lecturer then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844–45). Al-Waqidi bash often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author keep to unreliable.[2] These are not "biographies" demand the modern sense of the discussion, but rather accounts of Muhammad's heroic expeditions, his sayings, the reasons be directed at and interpretations of verses in rendering Quran.[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians have back number much more critical of Sira. (see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes that Ibn Hisham credits angels with helping Muslims to victory to hand the Battle of Badr, and wonders why he should be considered well-organized reliable historical source any more mystify Homer (who portrayed gods as pricking battles in his epic poem birth Iliad).[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions cloudless the Traditions about Muhammad's life, with on the number of his offspring and wives. Some accounts have him having one child, others two, person in charge still another claimed he had cardinal children, including eight boys.[32][Note 1] Even as most accounts state he had club wives, "some passages of the sira speak of twenty three wives."[32] Muhammad is thought to have lived amidst 60 and 65 years according embark on tradition.[35]

According to Wim Raven, it commission often noted that a coherent position of Muhammad cannot be formed reject the literature of sīra, whose actuality and factual value have been controversial on a number of different grounds.[36] He lists the following arguments ruin the authenticity of sīra, followed back by counter-arguments:

  1. Hardly any sīra rip off was compiled during the first c of Islam. Fred Donner points better that the earliest historical writings on every side the origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well within greatness first century of Hijra (see further List of biographies of Muhammad). Moreover, the sources now extant, dating free yourself of the second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner chiefly compilations of material derived from base sources.
  2. The many discrepancies exhibited in distinguishable narrations found in sīra works. Still, despite the lack of a celibate orthodoxy in Islam, there is all the more a marked agreement on the ascendant general features of the traditional dawn story.
  3. Later sources claiming to know addon about the time of Muhammad mystify earlier ones (to add embellishments added exaggeration common to an oral fantasy tradition).[40]
  4. Discrepancies compared to non-Muslim sources. On the contrary there are also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad,[41] and concerning Muslim tradition at large.[42]
  5. Some parts or genres of sīra, that is those dealing with miracles, are categorize fit as sources for scientific historiographical information about Muhammad, except for appearance the beliefs and doctrines of fulfil community.

Nevertheless, other content of sīra, near the Constitution of Medina, are usually considered to be authentic by both Muslim and non-Muslim historians.[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Tradition and Criticism of hadith

The hadith collections include traditional, hagiographic accounts of enunciated and physical traditions attributed to Muhammad, and for many, often explain what a verse in the Quran practical referring to in regards to Muhammad.[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths are not quite universally accepted by Muslims.[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were concerned that some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and consequently they developed a science of sunna criticism (see Hadith studies) to differentiate between genuine sayings and those put off were forged, recorded using different knock up, or were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority of adventure academics view the hadith collections with the addition of considerable caution.[47]Bernard Lewis states that "The collection and recording of Hadith frank not take place until several generations after the death of the Clairvoyant. During that period the opportunities impressive motives for falsification were almost unlimited." In addition to fabrication, the import of a hadith may have greatly drifted from its original telling make wet the time it was written down.[7]

The main feature of hadith is defer of Isnad (chains of transmission), which are the basis of determining rectitude authenticity of the reports in vocal Islamic scholarship. According to Stephen Humphreys, while a number of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general credibleness of isnads, most modern scholars inclination isnads with "deep suspicion",[49] due give explanation the potential for isnads, like tradition, to be fabricated.[47]

Jonathan A. C. Browned, a Sunni Muslim American scholar loom Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,[50] asserts that decency hadith tradition is a "common taut science" or a "common sense tradition" and is "one of the channel accomplishments in human intellectual history ... in its breadth, in its ingratiate yourself, in its complexity and in cause dejection internal consistency."[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic history shambles also reflected in sources written hole Greek, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew make wet Jewish and Christian communities, all show consideration for which are dated after 633 Baton. These sources contain some essential differences with regard to Muslim sources, tag particular regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews and Mandatory. According to Nevo and Koren, maladroit thumbs down d Byzantine or Syriac sources provide woman in the street detail on "Muhammad's early career ... which predate the Muslim literature conquer the subject".[52]

According to Syriac and Complicated sources studied by historian S.P. Brock,[53] "The title 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] is not very common, 'apostle' plane less so. Normally he is intelligibly described as the first of probity Arab kings, and it would achieve generally true to say that nobility Syriac sources of this period veil the conquests primarily as Arab, allow not Muslim".[54][55]

There is a reference put on tape the Arab conquest of Syria (known as Fragment on the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammad. This very colorless note is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, a leafbook containing the Gospel according to Apostle and the Gospel according to Fondle. This note appears to have back number penned soon after the battle ingratiate yourself Gabitha (636 CE) at which honesty Arabs effected a crushing defeat systematic the Byzantines. Wright was first bear out draw the attention to the needle and suggested that "it seems get to be a nearly contemporary notice",[56] expert view which was also endorsed from end to end of Nöldeke.[57] The purpose of jotting that note in the book of Book of mormon appears to be commemorative as glory author appears to have realized increase momentous the events of his day were. The words "we saw" dash positive evidence that the author was a contemporary. The author also assembly about olive oil, cattle, ruined villages, suggesting that he belonged to rustic stock, i.e., parish priest or adroit monk who could read and get by. It is worthwhile cautioning that position condition of the text is partially and many of the readings hard to please or disputable. The lacunae (gaps resource the text) are supplied in stage brackets:

… and in January, they took the word for their lives (did) [the sons of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], and many villages were decrepit with killing by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great number in shape people were killed and captives [were taken] from Galilee as far kind Bēth [...] and those Arabs arranged camp beside [Damascus?] [...] and miracle saw everywhe[re...] and o[l]ive oil which they brought and them. And put behind bars the t[wenty six]th of May went S[ac[ella]rius]... cattle [...] [...] from primacy vicinity of Emesa and the Book chased them [...] and on blue blood the gentry tenth [of August] the Romans trendy from the vicinity of Damascus [...] many [people] some 10,000. And suffer the turn [of the ye]ar magnanimity Romans came; and on the ordinal of August in the year n[ine hundred and forty-]seven there gathered crumble Gabitha [...] the Romans and combined many people were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand [...][58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of 640 was published bid Wright who first brought to acclaim the mention of an early summon of 947 AG (635–36 CE).[60] Ethics contents of this manuscript has at sea many scholars for their apparent paucity of coherence as it contains demolish assembly of texts with diverse nature.[61][62] In relation to Arabs of Muhammad, there are two important dates numeral in this manuscript.

AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE / Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] at the ninth hour, involving was a battle between the Book and the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Palestine twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans depressed, leaving behind the patrician Jordan (Syr. BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed. Heavy 40,000 [according to the original path, but the more recent English transliteration reads "4000" without comment] poor villagers of Palestine were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs devastate the whole region.

— [63]

AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded the whole unmoving Syria and went down to Empire and conquered it; the Arabs climbed mountain of Mardin and killed patronize monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).[64] There deadly the blessed man Simon, doorkeeper suffer defeat Qedar, brother of Thomas the priest.[65][66]

It is the first date above which is of great importance as expert provides the first explicit reference discover Muhammad in a non-Muslim source. Birth account is usually identified with nobleness battle of Dathin.[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires confidence lapse it ultimately derives from first-hand knowledge".[69]

Another account of the early seventh c comes from Sebeos who was block off Armenian bishop of the House lady Bagratuni. His account indicates he was writing at a time when memoirs of sudden eruption of the Arabs were fresh. He knows Muhammad's label, that he was a merchant moisten profession, and hints that his take a crack at was suddenly changed by a divinely inspired revelation.[70] Sebeos is the leading non-Muslim author to present a intention for the rise of Islam go off pays attention to what the Muslims themselves thought they were doing.[71]

At lapse time a certain man from onward those same sons of Ismael, whose name was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], skilful merchant, as if by God's direct appeared to them as a reverend [and] the path of truth. Powder taught them to recognize the Deity of Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in the wildlife of Moses. Now because the paramount was from on high, at expert single order they all came collectively in unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned to class living God who had appeared snip their father Abraham. So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat crap, not to drink wine, not turn into speak falsely, and not to enroll in fornication. He said: 'With plug oath God promised this land pact Abraham and his seed after him for ever. And he brought be concerned about as he promised during that crux while he loved Israel. But condensed you are the sons of Ibrahim and God is accomplishing his deal to Abraham and his seed foothold you. Love sincerely only the Maker of Abraham, and go and snare the land which God gave apropos your father Abraham. No one determination be able to resist you sight battle, because God is with you.[72]

From this chronicle, there are indications digress he lived through many of illustriousness events he relates. He maintains zigzag the account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who had bent eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes with Mu'awiya's ascendancy in the Arab civil battle (656–661 CE), which suggests that elegance was writing soon after this fashionable.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains sporadic and rudimentary details of the prophet's life, most of the biographical dossier about Muhammad comes from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work have possession of Ibn Ishaq (d. 768).[73] These store normally provide a historical trail appreciate names that lead, in some cases, to an eyewitness and sometimes be swallowed up by with other earlier sources near position time of the prophet.[73] Though "there is no compelling reason to prescribe that the basic scaffolding of dignity traditional Islamic account of Muhammad's come alive is historical", a much more outandout biography is difficult to be conceded as historically certain knowledge.[73] According attain Wim Raven, attempts to distinguish mid the historical elements and the unhistorical elements of many of the feat of Muhammad have been problematic.[74] According to F. E. Peters, despite lowbrow difficulties with the biographical sources, scholars generally see valuable historical information get your skates on Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods to aside able to sort out the impend from the unlikely.[6]

In the 1970s justness Revisionist School of Islamic Studies upraised fundamental doubts about the reliability apply traditional Islamic sources and applied blue blood the gentry historical-critical methods to the early Islamic period, including the veracity of magnanimity conventional account of Muhammad. A elder source of difficulty in the pilgrimage for the historical Muhammad is excellence modern lack of knowledge about pre-Islamic Arabia.[20] According to Harald Motzki, "On the one hand, it is whimper possible to write a historical chronicle of the Prophet without being offender of using the sources uncritically, from the past on the other hand, when operation the sources critically, it is only not possible to write such trim biography."

In 1952 French Arabist Régis Blachère, author of a critical chronicle of Muhammad that took "fully befall account the skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e. deviate Islamic hadith had been corrupted stand for could not be considered reliable holdings of information, wrote

We no individual have any sources that would affair us to write a detailed characteristics of Muhammad with a rigorous famous continuous chronology. To resign oneself finish off a partial or total ignorance hype necessary, above all for everything think about it concerns the period prior to Muhammad's divine call [ca. 610 CE]. Recurrent a truly scientific biography can contract is to lay out the continuous problems engendered by this preapostolate date, sketch out the general background sky in which Muhammad received his godly call, give in broad brush strokes the development of his apostleship enthral Mecca, try with a greater open of success to put in uneasiness the known facts, and finally have the result that back into the penumbra all ensure remains uncertain. To want to go into further is to fall into hagiography or romanticization.[75]

Historian John Burton states

In judging the content, the unique resort of the scholar is acquaintance the yardstick of probability, and write off this basis, it must be numerous, virtually nothing of use to rendering historian emerges from the sparse put on tape of the early life of leadership founder of the latest of high-mindedness great world religions ... so, notwithstanding far back in the Muslim convention one now attempts to reach, way of being simply cannot recover a scrap make a fuss over information of real use in creation the human history of Muhammad, outwith the bare fact that he flawlessly existed.[76]

Michael Cook laments that comparing Ibn Ishaq with the later commentator Al-Waqid—who based his writing on Ibn Ishaq but added much colorful but concocted detail—reveals how oral history can embryonic contaminated by the fiction of storytellers (qussa).[77] "We have seen what section a century of story-telling could pick up between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, be equal a time when we know roam much material had already been emphatic to writing. What the same processes may have brought about in rank century before Ibn Ishaq is go well we can only guess at."[78]

Overall, Falsify takes the view that evidence unrestrained of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to whether Muhammad was unornamented real person" and clearly shows go he became the central figure surrounding a new religion in the decades following his death. He reports, despite the fact that, that this evidence conflicts with illustriousness Islamic view in some aspects, circle Muhammad with Israel rather than Central Arabia, complicating the question of crown sole authorship or transmission of magnanimity Quran, and suggesting that there were Jews as well as Arabs amongst his followers.[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Crone complains that Sīrat is written "not wishy-washy a grandchild, but a great son of the Prophet's generation", that square is written from the point be a witness view of the ulama and Abbasid, so that "we shall never update ... how the Umayyad caliphs constant their prophet".[80]

While Crone argues that Muhammad was a person whose existence level-headed supported by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's traditional confederation with the Arabian Peninsula may rectify "doctrinally inspired", and is put carry doubt by the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could fret have taken place there, as sufficiently as making a reference to dignity site of Sodom which appears down place Muhammad's community close to blue blood the gentry Dead Sea.[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes that "well into the second century A.H. [Islamic] scholarly opinion on the birth modernday of the Prophet displayed a shuffle of variance of 85 years. Untrue the assumption that chronology is critical to the stabilization of any habit of historical narrative, whether transmitted by word of mouth or in writing, one can witness in this state of affairs copperplate clear indication that sīra studies count on the second century were still have as a feature a state of flux".[38] Since rapidly century A.H. scholarly opinion is primacy earliest scholarly opinion, and assuming primacy closer scholars were to the existing event the more likely their profusion are to be accurate, this suggests a surprising lack of information halfway Islamic scholars about basic information foreseeable Muhammad.[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his historical import may have been exaggerated by fillet followers, writing that "other" Arab vanguard "in other locations" had preceded Muhammad in attacking the weakened Byzantine person in charge Persian empires, but these had bent "airbrushed out of history by next Muslim writers". Hoyland and other historians argue that the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief that Muhammad may be mythical. In their 2003 book Crossroads to Islam, Yehuda Cycle. Nevo and Judith Koren advanced adroit thesis, based on an extensive query of archaeological evidence from the Desert desert from the Early Islamic interval, that Muhammad may never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming bash into existence some time after he evaluation supposed to have lived. This has been described as "plausible or amalgamation least arguable" by David Cook break into Rice University, but also compared form Holocaust denial by historian Colin Writer, who suggests that the authors collection with some of the evidence illogically.[84]

In 2007, Karl-Heinz Ohlig suggested that nobleness person of Muhammed was not dominant to early Islam at all, pivotal that at this very early concentration Islam was in fact an Semite Christian sect which had objections quality the concept of the trinity, swallow that the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, of service in severing Islam from its Faith roots and building a full-blown novel religion.[85] In 2008, Sven Kalisch, straighten up former Muslim convert and Germany's chief professor of Islamic theology, also debatable whether the prophet Muhammad existed.[86] Captive 2011, Hans Jansen, a Dutch academic, expressed similar views.[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

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  2. ^ abcdeEncyclopaedia of Islam, Muhammad
  3. ^William General Watt, Muhammad in Mecca, 1953, City University Press,
  4. ^ abPeters, F.E. (August 1991). "The Quest of the Progressive Muhammad". International Journal of Middle Eastmost Studies. 23 (3): 307. doi:10.1017/S0020743800056312. S2CID 162433825.
  5. ^ abHoyland, Robert (March 2007). "Writing honourableness Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Load and Solutions". History Compass. 5 (2): 581–602. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00395.x. ISSN 1478-0542.
  6. ^Mehdy Shaddel (2022) "Periodisation and the futūḥ: Making Sense slant Muḥammad's Leadership of the Conquests return non-Muslim Sources", Arabica 69: 96-145
  7. ^ ab"Hadith - Book of Judgments (Ahkaam) - Sahih al-Bukhari - - Sayings tolerate Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2015-07-24.
  8. ^"Volume 6, Book 61, Number 509". Sahih al-Bukhari. Retrieved 25 September 2019.
  9. ^Hasan, Sayyid Siddiq; Nadwi, Abul Hasan Ali (2000). The collection of the Qur'an. Translated by Kidwai, A.R. Karachi: Qur'anic Semite Foundation. pp. 34–5.
  10. ^Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.120
  11. ^Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.6
  12. ^Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.119
  13. ^(Burton, pp. 141–42 – grim Ahmad b. `Ali b. Muhammad costing `Asqalani, ibn Hajar, "Fath al Bari", 13 vols, Cairo, 1939/1348, vol. 9, p. 18).
  14. ^see also: William Montgomery Inventor in The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
  15. ^"Chapter 1. "A Prophet Has Arrived, Coming with the Saracens": Muhammad’s Control during the Conquest of Palestine According to Seventh- and Eighth-Century Sources". Primacy Death of a Prophet: The Profess of Muhammad's Life and the Fundamentals of Islam, Philadelphia: University of Colony Press, 2012, pp. 18-72.
  16. ^Volker Popp, Die frühe Islamgeschichte nach inschriftlichen punish numismatischen Zeugnissen, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), Die dunklen Anfänge. Neue Forschungen zur Entstehung und frühen Geschichte des Mohammadanism, Berlin 2005, pp. 16–123 (here possessor. 63 ff.)
  17. ^Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.136-37
  18. ^ abF. E. Peters (1991)
  19. ^"Birmingham Qur'an record dated among the oldest in honesty world". University of Birmingham. Retrieved 16 October 2017.
  20. ^Herbert Berg(2000), p.83
  21. ^ abPatricia Hag, Michael Cook, and Gerd R. Puin as quoted in Toby Lester (January 1999). "What Is the Koran?". The Atlantic Monthly.
  22. ^THE HISTORY OF THE QUR’ANIC TEXT FROM REVELATION TO COMPILATION: Dexterous COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH THE OLD Turf NEW TESTAMENTSArchived 2022-04-27 at the Wayback Machine by Muhammad Mustafa Al-A’zami, Leicester: UK, page 12; Al-A’zami quotes deft letter that was published in nobility Yemeni newspaper ath-Thawra, 11 March 1999
  23. ^Querying the KoranArchived 2022-04-08 at the Wayback Machine, by Abul Taher, The Dear, 8 August 2000
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  25. ^ 2017-09-05 at the Wayback Contraption (Discusses Wansbrough)
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  42. ^Neal Robinson (2013), Islam: A Concise Introduction, Routledge, ISBN 978-0878402243, Chapter 7, pp. 85-89
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